Socio-economic-demographic determinants of depression in Indonesia: A hospital-based study

The association of socio-economic-demographic (SED; e.g., income-related) factors with
depression is widely confirmed in the literature. We conducted a hospital-based case–control study of 160 patients with psychiatrist-diagnosed clinical depression. The control group
comprised 160 participants recruited from local communities. We used a questionnaire to
collect SED data from all participants. We replaced missing values using multiple imputation
analyses and further analyzed the pooled data of five imputations. We also recorded the
results from the original analysis and each imputation. Univariate analyses showed income
was associated with depression. Multiple logistic regression analyses revealed that, among
all SED variables, high income (odds ratio = 2.088 [95% confidence interval = 1.178–3.700];
p = 0.012), middle-level (completed junior or senior high school) education (1.688 [1.042–
2.734]; p = 0.033) and cohabitating with four or more family members (1.632 [1.025–2.597];
p = 0.039) were significant predictors for the case group. We conclude that cash income is a
determinant of depression in hospital outpatients in Indonesia. This study suggests health
policy implications toward better hospital access and service for people with depression in
middle- or low-income households, and recommends considering high income as correlated
with a high risk of depression, owing to socio-cultural changes.